Of the writing (and reading!) of books there is no end, but attention to an immense literature dealing with questions of political power and authority, and how Christians can most wisely think (and act) in terms of these issues, is an important task.

The task assigned to me is to provide something of a brief survey or annotated list of works in the history of political theology. This is the kind of task that sounds easy when talking with the editorial team. But when one sits to actually do the task one realizes (again!) that there is a lot of material. What follows is by necessity selective. In seeking to list (a portion?) of the key texts on political theology, I generally stick to Christian theological resources. However, as we move into the modern era, I found it helpful (and necessary, as shall be seen) to at least mention briefly Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, since their impact on subsequent western thinking—including Christian reflection—is significant.

One resource that can be recommended without reservation is Oliver O’Donovan and Joan Lockwood O’Donovan, From Irenaeus to Grotius: A Sourcebook in Christian Political Thought. This work is a collection of primary sources up through Grotius (1538–1646). The reader would have to look elsewhere to come up to the present day. But the volume by the O’Donovan’s (husband and wife) would virtually constitute a course in and of itself in political theology. Often, when I am quoting this or that source, I am relying upon From Irenaeus to Grotius.

Thus, in what follows I offer ten of the most important works on political theology, starting with a compilation of voices from the Early Church, and concluding with other key resources that could be consulted. As Ecclesiastes 12:11, “Of making many books there is no end,” and thus this list is just the beginning. But for anyone who wants to do the reading, these ten steps are worth taking.

1. Selected Early Christian Texts and Early Church Fathers

Since it is impossible to limit the reading to one definitive work in the Early Church, here are five critical contributions: Justin Martyr, the Epistle to Diognetus, Theophilus of Antioch, Irenaeus, and Tertullian.

Justin Martyr (c. A.D. 90/100–165) is known for three key works: First Apology, Second Apology, and Dialogue with Trypho. In his First Apology he is writing Emperor Antoninus Pius (reigned A.D. 137/38–161). Here, Justin Martyr defends Christians as good citizens (pp. 2, 4), as ones who “more than all other peoples . . . are your helpers and allies in the cause of peace” (p. 12) and as ones who are happy to be judged fairly. Justin Martyr also boldly writes that there is no ruler more kingly or just than Jesus Christ (p. 12).

The Epistle to Diognetus is worthy of mention. The date is uncertain, but Michael W. Holmes suggests between A.D. 117 to after 313.^[1] This letter is of interest to us for what the author says in section five. He writes of how Christians function as citizens: “while they live in both Greek and barbarian cities, as each one’s lot was cast, and follow the local customs in dress and food and other aspects of life, at the same time they demonstrate the remarkable and admittedly unusual character of their own citizenship. (5.4). Indeed, Christians “live in their own countries, but only as aliens; they participate in everything as citizens, and endure everything as foreigners. Every foreign country is their fatherland, and every fatherland is foreign.” (5.5). We see themes here that Christians are still wrestling with today.

Theophilus of Antioch (died c. A.D. 183–185) is known to us through his work, To Autolycus. He writes the striking line: “I will pay honour to the emperor not by worshipping him but by praying for him.” (p. 11). The emperor is not a true God, but was made by the true God. (p. 11). The emperor is not to be worshipped; the emperor is simply to rule justly. (p. 11).).

Irenaeus (c. A.D. 125–c. 202) is most well-known for his Proof of the Apostolic Preaching (a relatively short work), as well as his Against Heresies (a much longer, five-volume work). In Against Heresies he reflects upon the nature of the civil magistrate. Civil government comes about due to sin (in agreement with Augustine, and in disagreement with Thomas Aquinas). Civil government is an agent of justice, and provides at least a modicum of justice while living in this life. He interprets the “rock” of Daniel 2:41­–45 (a rock not made by human hands) as Christ, who will ultimately crush the kingdoms of this world. (5.26).

Tertullian (c. A.D. 155–c. 220), was the most significant western theologian before Augustine (A.D. 354–430). Tertullian, like many who follow him, contends that civil laws must be just, and must never require something fundamentally immoral. And law must only conjoin that which is fundamentally good (Apology 4). Good civil leadership must show diligence to go through and expunge and clear out clearly unjust laws (Apology 4). Similarly, judges should only take action when the evidence is clear (Apology 4.). Christians should pray for the emperor (Apology 30). In an interesting move, Tertullian asserts that “nothing is more foreign to us than the state (res publica). One state we know, of which all are citizens—the universe.” (Apology 38).

2. Augustine, City of God

Augustine’s classic work, City of God, must be on any reading list of this sort. Augustine (A.D. 354–430) wrote this work between 413 and 427, after Alaric and the Visigoths had successfully invaded Rome in A.D. 410. Some of the pagan opponents of Christianity claimed that Rome had fallen to the Visigoths because Rome had forsaken their traditional gods and religious practices, and had (at least in some ways) turned to Christianity. Augustine argued that the history of the world was really the history of “two cities”—the city of God, and the city of man. The city of God was constituted by those who loved God, even if this led to contempt for oneself, and the city of man was created by those who love the self, even if this led to contempt for God. These two cities—in the present time—are intermingled, and will remain so until the end of time. At that point, the city of man will be judged, while the city of God will reach its ultimate end—which is the company of the saints enjoying and gazing upon God.

Of particular interest is that Augustine argued not only that the Roman republic had had problems long before Christianity entered the scene (thus Christianity could not be justly blamed Rome’s challenges), but the problem was much, much deeper. If justice was giving each person his due, the commonwealth must account for Christ and for what Christ is due. Christ is owed ultimately love, allegiance, and obedience. Hence, true justice can only be achieved when Christ is Lord of a commonwealth (City of God II.21).

3. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas (A.D. 1225–74) did not write the equivalent of a City of God, but he wrote at some length on the nature of civil government. I fudge a bit here and mention two works by Thomas: his classic, Summa Theologiae (I–II, QQ.90–97) and his De Regno (Concerning the King). In his Summa Theologiae Thomas treats “Of the Essence of Law” (Q. 90), the “Of the Various Kinds of Law” (Q. 91), “Of the Effects of Law” (Q. 92), “Of the Eternal Law” (Q. 92), “Of the Eternal Law” (Q. 93), “Of the Natural Law” (Q. 94), “Of the Human Law” (Q. 95), “Of the Power of the Human Law” (Q. 96), and “Of Change in Law”) Question 96. Subsequent questions focus on different aspects of biblical law, the “New Law,” and then moves on to questions of grace and merit (Questions 98–114).

We will not work through the details of Thomas’ understanding of law here. But he is an extremely important pre-modern Christian example of an attempt to think through the nature of what he calls “human law” (the various law codes created by human/earthly political bodies), and how such laws are inextricably linked to God’s law—including the “eternal law” which exists in the mind of God, the “natural law” (our “participation” in the eternal law), as well as law found in the Bible itself (I-II, QQ.98–105).

4. Dante Allighieri

Dante Alighieri (A.D. 1265–1321) was one of the most important persons of the middle ages. He is especially well known for his The Divine Comedy—published in three books: Inferno, Purgatory, and Paradise. His work that concerns us here is his De Monarchia (On Monarchy—dated between 1310 and 1312, but even possibly as late as 1317).^[2] Interestingly, Oliver and John Lockwood O’Donvan call Dante’s De Monarchia a “naturalistic apology for the Roman Empire.”^[3] Dante, we might say, helps lay the groundwork for conceiving of the civil government as truly an independent authority, not in any way subject to, or reliant upon, the church. The O’Donovans suggest that three key arguments animate De Monarchia:^[4]

1. “Universal monarchy alone brings the uninterrupted and all-encompassing peace that enables mankind to fulfill its divinely willed, natural task of actualizing the ‘possible intellect’ in its multifarious potentialities.”

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